The interjection is a common grammatical
category, and a simple one, for any word or group of words that we use to
express shock, surprise, pain, joy, admiration, and a wide range of other
feelings and responses.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are used by themselves or as
part of a sentence:
Good grief!
Cool!
Oh, no!
My.
What now?
Interjections have
no distinctive form. They can be single words or longer phrases; they can be
joined to sentences by commas or dashes, or they can stand independently,
ending with periods, question marks, or exclamation marks:
What the heck?
Well, great.
Wow!
Oy!
Some interjections
serve social purposes: greetings (Hello,
Goodbye); pauses (Let’s see, Well . . .); politeness (Please, Thanks); or agreement or disagreement (Yes,
No, Yeah, Nah, Maybe, Sure! Says you! Yeah, right! Baloney!).
Some interjections
are the kinds of words you use when you drop a hammer on your foot—the words
your mother told you to stop using. (You know
the words we mean.)
Other
interjections are not even actual words, but merely sounds that have become
conventional ways to express things: Ouch!
Yikes! Sheesh! Oof! Oops! Hubba-hubba! Whoopee! and, in the upper Midwestern states, Uff-da! They are generally easy to recognize.
The most important
thing to know about interjections is that, although they are useful for
self-expression and social interaction, they play no grammatical role in the
sentence. In analyzing the grammar of a sentence, you can disregard the
interjections.
Some grammar books
classify some of these words as adverbs, though they clearly do not modify
verbs, adjectives, or other ad-verbs. (Some could arguably be sentence
modifiers, which we’ll examine in Chapter 20.) For our purposes, calling them
interjec-tions is sufficient.
THE EIGHT PARTS
OF SPEECH
The eight parts of speech belong to that body of
general knowledge all educated people are supposed to possess—like the three
branches of government, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, the five Marx
Brothers, the six basic nutrients, the Seven Deadly Sins, and all nine of the
eight planets.
In other words, they’re an essential idea in the study of language. The eight parts of speech are eight categories used in conventional grammar study to account for all the words in English. Every word in English can be placed into one of these categories—or at least one—and we’ve now learned a good deal about all the categories.
Three of the parts
of speech are nouns or words associated with nouns:
Nouns: Words that stand for persons, places, things,
or ideas.
Pronouns: Words that take the place of nouns.
Adjectives:
Words that modify nouns or
pronouns.
Two of the parts of speech are verbs and adverbs:
Verbs: Words that indicate an action or a state of
being.
Adverbs: Words that modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs.
Two of the parts of speech are connecting words:
Conjunctions: Words that connect phrases and
clauses to other phrases or clauses;
they indicate some grammatical relationship between the connected units.
Prepositions: Words that connect a noun or
pronoun (the object of the
preposition) with other words in the sentence to create adjectival or adverbial
phrases.
And the eighth part of speech
are the interjections, which we’ve
just met. Interjections, again, are exclamatory words and phrases used to
express feelings and reactions.
An important part
of analyzing the grammar of any sentence is to place each word into one of the
eight parts. That’s not always easy. To be honest, a few words just don’t fit
well into any of these eight categories. The expletive there is one.
A FORM AND ITS
FUNCTIONS
In analyzing the
grammar of a sentence, it’s helpful to distin-guish between a form and its functions:
The form can be any word, like a noun or a
verb. It can also be a larger unit constructed upon a part of speech, like a
verb phrase or a prepositional phrase.
The function is the grammatical role the
form plays in a particular sentence. A noun can function as a subject or direct
object. Or, as we’ve seen, nouns can have other functions: They can be indirect
objects, predicate nominatives, objects of a preposition, or other functions.
Similarly, prepositional phrases can be adjectival or adverbial.
A number of forms
(nouns, verbs, modifiers) assembled to-gether can build larger phrases and
clauses that have their own functions. A relative clause is a form that has an
adjectival func-tion in a sentence; a subordinate clause has an adverbial
function.
The function of
any form is defined by the way it is used in a particular sentence, that is, by
its context. You can’t look at a single word in isolation and define its
function. There are exceptions: It’s usually safe to say that the is an article, used adjectivally.
But in the sentence that you just read, the
was used as a noun, as the subject of a clause: “The is an article.”
Consider this
word: bill. Is it a noun or a verb?
To answer, we need context:
I will bring your monthly bills.
He will bill me every month.
In the first sentence, bill is a noun, and it functions as a direct
object. In the second sentence, bill is a transitive verb; it functions
as the main verb
of the sentence.
Or consider these
sentences:
I am rising early tomorrow morning.
I like rising early.
I like to watch the rising sun.
In the first
sentence, rising has the form of a
verb (because of its –ing suffix),
and it also has the function of a verb, as part of a progressive tense verb, am rising.
In the second
sentence, rising again has the form a
verb, the present participle of rise,
but it has the function of a noun, the direct object of the transitive verb like. (What does the speaker like? He
likes rising early.)
In the third
sentence, rising still has the form
of a verb, but it has the function of an adjective, modifying sun. (We’ll soon learn more about using
verbs nominally and adjectivally.)
There are other challenges
in classification: For instance, how do we classify particles? You’ll recall
that a particle, as we have used the
term, is the first element in an infinitive verb (as in to look or to do: I need time to look at my list of things to do)
or the second element in a phrasal verb (look
up a word). We simply
consider these particles as parts of their verbs; they are not regarded as
separate words.
And the expletive there, since it doesn’t participate in
the grammatical structure of a sentence, doesn’t fit neatly into any
grammatical category.
Although we have
not discussed the distinction between form and function before, we’ve used the
distinction here and there in this book. Early on, we said that nouns could be
used adverbially, and that some adverbs could be used nominally. Form and
function are important ideas in grammar.
We’ll see that
this matter of form and function becomes particularly important as we move on
to chapters about verbals.
EXERCISES
1. Write
from memory the Eight Parts of Speech. Then define them and check your work by referring to the early pages of this
chapter.
2.
In the following sentences, use context to identify both the form and function of the underlined
words.
In the increasingly chaotic
country, university students are revolting.
Defend them if you like, but I’m
tired of these revolting students.
We were jogging around the block.
All of us enjoy jogging.
He will replace the shattered lamp.
He shattered it accidentally.
This rose bud is for you.
I gave you a rose bud, for I care about
you.
I wanted to get you more, but I couldn’t
afford it.
I bought you nothing but this rose bud.
