Verbs
Verbs form the second largest word class after nouns. The basic form of an English verb is not generally marked by any ending, although there are certain suffixes that are frequently used to form verbs, such as -ate (formulate), -fy (electrify), and -ise/ize(realise/realize). Many verbs also contain prefixes, such un- (unmask), out- (outlast), over- (overtake), and under- (undervalue). Verbs can also be formed from nouns and adjectives by conversion, as with the verbs snare, nose, dry, and calm.
Most verbs have three or four inflected forms: a third-person singular
present tense form in -(e)s (writes, botches), a present participleand gerund
form in -ing (writing), a past tense (wrote), and
– though often identical to the past tense form – a past participle
(written). Regular verbs have identical past tense and past participle forms in
-ed, but there are 100 or so irregular English verbs with different forms (see
list). The verbs have, do and say also have irregular third-person present
tense forms (has, does /dʌz/, says /sɛz/). The
verb be has the largest number of irregular forms (am, is, are in the present
tense, was, were in the past tense, been for the past participle).
Most of what are often referred to as verb tenses (or sometimes aspects)
in English are formed using auxiliary verbs. Apart from what are called the
simple present (write, writes) and simple past (wrote), there are also
continuous (progressive) forms (am/is/are/was/were writing), perfect forms
(have/has/had written, and the perfect continuous have/has/had been writing),
future forms (will write, will be writing, will have written, will have been
writing), and conditionals (also called "future in the past") with
would in place of will. The auxiliaries shall and should sometimes replace will
and would in the first person. For the uses of these various verb forms, see
English verbs and English clause syntax.
The infinitive is the basic form of the verb (be, write, play), although
there is also a "to-infinitive" (to be, to write, to play) used in
many syntactical constructions. There are also infinitives corresponding to
other aspects: (to) have written, (to) be writing, (to) have been writing. The
second-person imperative is identical to the (basic) infinitive; other
imperative forms may be made with let (let us go, orlet's go; let them eat
cake).
A form identical to the infinitive can be used as a present subjunctive
in certain contexts: It is important that he follow them or... that he be
committed to the cause. There is also a past subjunctive (distinct from the
simple past only in the possible use of wereinstead of was), used in some
conditional sentences and similar: if I were (or was) rich ...; were he to arrive
now ...; I wish she were(or was) here. For details see English subjunctive.
The passive voice is formed using the verb is (in the appropriate tense
or form) with the past participle of the verb in question: cars are driven, he
was killed, I am being tickled, it is nice to be pampered, etc. The performer
of the action may be introduced in a prepositional phrase with by (as in they
were killed by the invaders).
The English modal verbs consist of the core modals can, could, may,
might, must, shall, should, will, would, as well as ought (to),had better, and
in some uses dare and need These do not inflect for person or number,[8] and do
not have infinitive or participle forms (except synonyms, as with be/being/been
able (to) for the modals can/could). The modals are used with the basic
infinitive
form of a verb (I can swim, he may be killed, we dare not move, need
they go?), except for ought, which takes to (you ought to go).
The copula be, along with the modal verbs and the other auxiliaries,
form a distinct class, sometimes called "special verbs" or simply
"auxiliaries".[9] These have different syntax from ordinary lexical
verbs, especially in that they make their interrogative forms by plaininversion
with the subject, and their negative forms by adding not after the verb (could
I ...? I could not ...). Apart from those already mentioned, this class may
also include used to (although the forms did he use to? and he didn't use to
are also found), and sometimes have even when not an auxiliary (forms like have
you a sister? and he hadn't a clue are possible, though becoming less common).
It also includes the auxiliary do (does, did); this is used with the basic
infinitive of other verbs (those not belonging to the "special verbs"
class) to make their question and negation forms, as well as emphatic forms (do
I like you?; he doesn't speak English; we did close the fridge). For more
details of this, see do-support.
Some forms of the copula and auxiliaries often appear as contractions,
as in I'm for I am, you'd for you would or you had, and John'sfor John is.
Their negated forms with following not are also often contracted (see Negation
below). For detail see English auxiliaries and contractions.
Verb phrases
A verb together with its dependents, excluding its subject, may be
identified as a verb phrase (although this concept is not acknowledged in all
theories of grammar[10]). A verb phrase headed by a finite verb may also be
called a predicate. The dependents may be objects, complements, and modifiers
(adverbs or adverbial phrases). In English, objects and complements nearly
always come after the verb; a direct object precedes other complements such as
prepositional phrases, but if there is an indirect object as well, expressed
without a preposition, then that precedes the direct object: give me the book,
but give the book to me. Adverbial modifiers generally follow objects, although
other positions are possible (see under Adverbs below). Certain verb–modifier
combinations, particularly when they have independent meaning (such as take on
and get up), are known as "phrasal verbs".
For details of possible patterns, see English clause syntax. See the
Non-finite clauses section of that article for verb phrases headed by
non-finite verb forms, such as infinitives and participles.
Adjectives
English adjectives, as with other word classes, cannot in general be
identified as such by their form,[11] although many of them are formed from
nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as -al (habitual), -ful
(blissful), -ic (atomic), -ish (impish, youngish),-ous (hazardous), etc.; or
from other adjectives using a prefix: disloyal, irredeemable, unforeseen,
overtired.
Adjectives may be used attributively, as part of a noun phrase (nearly
always preceding the noun they modify), as in the big house, or predicatively,
as in the house is big. Certain adjectives are restricted to one or other use;
for example, drunken is attributive (a drunken sailor), while drunk is usually
predicative (the sailor was drunk).
Comparison
Many adjectives have comparative and superlative forms in -er and -est,
such as faster and fastest (from the positive form fast). Spelling rules which
maintain pronunciation apply to suffixing adjectives just as they do for
similar treatment of regular past tense formation; these cover consonant
doubling (as in bigger and biggest, from big) and the change of y to i after
consonants (as inhappier and happiest, from happy).
The adjectives good and bad have the irregular forms better, best and
worse, worst; also far becomes farther, farthest or further, furthest. The
adjective old (for which the regular older and oldest are usual) also has the
irregular forms elder and eldest, these generally being restricted to use in
comparing siblings and in certain independent uses. For the comparison of
adverbs, see Adverbsbelow.
Many adjectives, however, particularly those that are longer and less
common, do not have inflected comparative and superlative forms. Instead, they
can be qualified with more and most, as in beautiful, more beautiful, most
beautiful (this construction is also sometimes used even for adjectives for
which inflected forms do exist).
Certain adjectives are classed as ungradableThese represent properties
that cannot be compared on a scale; they simply apply or do not, as with
pregnant, dead, unique. Consequently, comparative and superlative forms of such
adjectives are not normally used, except in a figurative, humorous or imprecise
context. Similarly, such adjectives are not normally qualified with modifiers
of degree such as very and fairly, although with some of them it is idiomatic
to use adverbs such as completely. Another type of adjectives sometimes
considered ungradable is those that represent an extreme degree of some
property, such as delicious and terrified.
Adjective phrases
An adjective phrase is a group of words that plays the role of an
adjective in a sentence. It usually has a single adjective as its head, to
which modifiers and complements may be added.
Adjectives can be modified by a preceding adverb or adverb phrase, as in
very warm, truly imposing, more than a little excited. Some can also be
preceded by a noun or quantitative phrase, as in fat-free, two-metre-long.
Complements following the adjective may include:
prepositional
phrases: proud of him, angry at the screen, keen on breeding toads;
infinitive
phrases: anxious to solve the problem, easy to pick up;
content clauses, i.e. that clauses and certain others: certain that he
was right, unsure where they are;
after comparatives, phrases or clauses with than: better than you,
smaller than I had imagined.
An adjective phrase may include both modifiers before the adjective and
a complement after it, as in very difficult to put away.
Adjective phrases containing complements after the adjective cannot
normally be used as attributive adjectives before a noun. Sometimes they are
used attributively after the noun, as in a woman proud of being a midwife
(where they may be converted into relative clauses: a woman who is proud of
being a midwife), but it is wrong to say *a proud of being a midwife woman.
Exceptions include very brief and often established phrases such as
easy-to-use. (Certain complements can be moved to after the noun, leaving the
adjective before the noun, as in a better man than you, a hard nut to crack.)
Certain attributive adjective phrases are formed from other parts of
speech, without any adjective as their head, as in a two-bedroom house, a
no-jeans policy.
